In ancient times, the stress in Indo-European languages ​​was free. In Germanic languages, it is fixed on the first root syllable of the word. This phenomenon played an important role for the entire language system: thanks to it, all final syllables, i.e. grammatical endings were in an unstressed position. This contributed to the reduction (weakening) and subsequent disappearance of inflections in Germanic languages, incl. and in English.

Consonants. First consonant movement (Grimm's law)

When comparing cognate words in Indo-European (in the base language) and Germanic languages, certain correspondences of some consonant sounds of Germanic languages ​​with the consonant sounds of other words were noticed (Rask - Grimm). languages. It turned out that a whole series of sounds that were characteristic of I.E. languages, changed in a certain way in the Germanic languages, turning there into other sounds, i.e. became their reflexes.

The movement of consonants covered all noisy consonants except [S] of three local rows - velar, dental, labial. The law of the 1st movement of consonants had 3 stages (acts):

(1) i.e. voiceless stops [p], [t], [k] turn into voiceless fricatives of the corresponding series: [f], [Θ], [h]:

(2) i.e. voiced stops [b], [d], [g] turn into German voiceless stops [p], [t], [k]:

(3) Indo-Hebrew. voiced stop aspirates , , transform into Germanic simple ones [b], [d], [g]. Aspirate stops are preserved only in Sanskrit:

The first movement apparently took place between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC. Each of these changes covered a fairly long period of a hundred years or more.

Werner's law

Danish scientist Karl Werner drew attention to the fact that in a number of words there were no changes according to Grimm's law. Example: Greek pater, Skt. pitar – other English fæder, Gothic fadar. Werner gave an explanation for these discrepancies with Grimm's law regarding the consonants [p], [t], [k]. He established that changes occur in accordance with Act 1 of Grimm's law if the stress in a word in ancient times, before fixation on the first syllable, was on the vowel preceding the given consonant. If the emphasis was behind a given consonant or two syllables ahead of it, then the voiceless fricatives formed according to the 1st act, called out . Word other English fæder, Gothic fadar also had an accent in ancient times after the fricative, which was voiced, and the word father in Germanic languages ​​it should initially sound like *, in which, according to Grimm’s law, [p] > [f], [d] > [ө], then, according to Werner’s law, [ө] was voiced into [ð] – *. After the stress was transferred to the root (usually the first) syllable, the voiced ones, which arose according to Werner's law, were phonologized.

Phonologization is the consolidation of a feature that has arisen in a certain position, i.e. at the allophone level. Phonologization is revealed when the position in which the phenomenon occurred disappears. Position independence is characteristic of the phoneme, therefore this feature becomes phonologically relevant. After phonologization of voicing according to Werner’s law, some of the voicing phonemes changed qualitatively. The voiced dental [ð] merged with the voiced stop [d], hence the form fæder attested in Old English.

The Indo-European phoneme [s], when voicing according to Werner’s law, turned into [z], which then turned into [r]. This process is called rotacism:

Gothic hau s jan other English hie r an

other English we s an–wæ s– wæ r on

These patterns allowed Werner to conclude that in the common Germanic era the stress was still mobile and only later, with the development of Germanic tribal languages, did it become fixed.

Emphasis on words

The words for the Unified State Exam are on the page with the correct accents in the words.

Accent

In the flow of speech, one of the syllables in a word is emphasized by stress.

Stress is the pronunciation of one of the syllables with greater force and duration. Unlike some other languages ​​(for example, Vietnamese, Serbo-Croatian), in Russian the stress is not associated with a change in tone.

Unlike some other languages ​​(for example, French, Polish), in Russian the stress is varied - it is not assigned to a specific syllable:

light(stress falls on the first syllable).

brighten(stress falls on the second syllable).

Firefly(stress falls on the last syllable).

Russian stress can fall on different parts of a word:

(here the emphasis falls on the suffix).

(here the emphasis falls on the prefix).

(here the emphasis falls on the root).

Stress norms for most words in the Russian language are contained in the spelling dictionary.

Remember where the emphasis is in the following words: Alphabet. Alphabetical. Indulging, indulging, indulging. Gasoline pipeline. Was, was, was not, was not. Taken, taken. Gas pipeline. Dispensary. Agreement. Clean. To the top. Lived, lived. Call, call, call, call, call. Jealous. Locked herself. For a long time. Tool. Spark. Catalog. Quarter. Kilometer. More beautiful. Kitchen. A glimpse. Inflicted. To begin, began, began, beginning, began, begun. Intention. Pipeline. Make it easier. Will repeat. Put it down, put it down, put it down. Got it, got it, understood, understood. Two by two. Three at a time. To seal. Translated, translated. (She) is right, (you) are right. Arrived, arrived, arrived, arrived. Snuck up. I accepted. Overpass. Centimeter. Created, created, created, created (the option created is allowed). Means, means. Ukrainian. Deepen, deepen. Petition. Driver, drivers.

Indication of the softness of consonants in writing

The softness of consonants is indicated in writing in several ways.

Unpaired soft consonants [й'], [ч'], [ш'] are indicated in writing by the letters y, h, sch.

Paired soft consonants [b'], [v'], [g'], [d'], [z'], [k'], [l'], [m'], [n'], [p '], [p'], [s'], [t'], [f'], [x'] do not have “proper” letters to designate. Their softness is indicated in writing in two ways:

1) using vowels e, e, yu, i, and:

chalk - [m’el],

ice - [l’ot],

hatch - [l’uk],

ball - [m’ach’],

drink - [p'it"];

2) using b at the end of a word or before other consonants:

mole - [mol’],

In the Russian language, in some borrowed words, before the vowel letter e there is not a soft, but a hard consonant sound: temp - [temp]. The pronunciation of such words should be memorized. You also need to remember the pronunciation of some borrowed words in which a soft consonant sounds before the vowel e.

In these borrowed words there is a hard consonant before E	In these borrowed words, a soft consonant sounds before the E
Atelier [te] Interior [te] Kashne [ne] Criterion [te] (soft [t’] allowed)* Model [de] Parterre [te] Claim [te] (soft [t’] allowed) * Re le [re] Sweater [te] Those mp [te] Those st [te] Those nnis [te] Those rmos [te] Chimpanzee [ze] Postmark [te] Highway	Aggression (hard [r] allowed) * Depot (solid [d] allowed) * Flight (hard [r] allowed) * Athlete Session (hard [c] allowed) * Territory Express (hard [p] allowed) *

Teacher's comments on the material being studied

Possible difficulties	Good advice
In some words, the norms of stress and hard/soft pronunciation of consonants are remembered or checked in the dictionary.	Remember the correct pronunciation of words in the online help. Study the spelling dictionary of the Russian language, write down and remember, if possible, all the words in the pronunciation of which you are likely to make a mistake.
Sometimes the placement of stress in short adjectives is questionable. (e.g. pale or pale)	To determine the place of stress, determine the gender in which the adjective is used. In short adjectives in the feminine form, the emphasis in doubtful cases falls on the ending: pale, young. The exception is the word beautiful. In other forms of gender and in the plural, the stress in most cases falls on the first syllable: hungry.
In past tense verbs, especially in feminine and neuter forms, the place of stress is not always obvious.	Determine the gender in which the past tense verb is used. If you have a verb in the feminine form, then the emphasis in doubtful cases will most often fall on the ending: took, called. If the verb is in the masculine, neuter form or used in the plural, then the emphasis falls on the stem, mainly on the first syllable: accepted, took, started. In the verbs reap, put, steal, neigh, the stress always falls on the stem, including in the feminine gender (zhala, klala, stole, neighed).
You can make a mistake in placing stress in short participles.	In most short participles, the emphasis falls on the prefix, including in the feminine gender (named, chosen, interrupted). In words without a prefix, as well as in some short participles with a prefix, used in the feminine form, the emphasis falls on the ending: vitА, taken, begun, accepted, lived.

When the child has firmly grasped what a sound and a letter are, we move on to studying the syllable.

How to break words into syllables, where to put stress in a word, and how to move a word? – these are the basic concepts that will be encountered in studying the Russian language in elementary school.

Having mastered these seemingly simple truths, the child will easily understand the basic rules of spelling in the Russian language.

Syllable

So, earlier we agreed that a word consists of sounds. How can you divide a word into parts? When we want to shout a word to someone far away, we try to break the word. Try shouting the word mom together with your child. How did you do it?

Mother

So you broke this word into two syllables. Try also, for example, the words spring and streams.

Happened: spring And ru-che-ki. That is, the word spring has 2 syllables, and the word brooks has 3 syllables.

Let's try to sing the word mom. It turns out m-a-a-m-a-a.

We pronounce vowel sounds with our mouth open - the sound comes out of the mouth freely. By pronouncing consonant sounds, we put obstacles to the sound with our speech apparatus. Thus, we break words into parts, hence the basic rule:

There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels.

Example of words with one, two and three syllables:

Now try to come up with words yourself that will fit into the proposed schemes; only one syllable can be inserted into each cell:

Words consisting of one syllable are called monosyllabic, of two syllables - two-syllable, out of three – trisyllabic and so on.

Examples of one-syllable words: snow, their, birds, by.

Two-syllable: quiet, branch, steel.

Trisyllabic: walks, birches.

Each word is pronounced with an accent on any syllable. For example, let's take, again, the word Mother.

We focus on the first syllable of this word: ma-ma. Or rather, on the first vowel of this syllable. This accent is called accent and is denoted as follows:

And the letter on which the emphasis is placed is called stressed.

Why do you need stress in a word? Let's take the word machine:

We put the accent on the vowel of the second word. Try putting the accent on the vowel of the first syllable; it turns out to be a completely different word that has nothing to do with a means of transportation.

You can make a sentence from these words:

As you can see, these are two different words. Well, if we put the emphasis on the last syllable, it will turn out to be completely nonsense.

And vowel letters that are not stressed are called unstressed.

Now practice, together with your child, correctly placing emphasis in words:

Frosts, stumps, gooseberries.

It turns out that the role of stress in the pronunciation of words is very important, and later we will learn that with the help of stress we can learn how to correctly write unstressed vowels in words.

Hyphenation

When writing words, we are faced with the fact that sometimes the word completely does not fit on the line. Then this word can be moved to another line. How to do this? It’s very simple: you need to break the word into syllables and transfer it.

For example, the word pencil can be translated like this:

ka-

ran-

dash

Just? But there are several rules that should not be neglected:

1. One letter cannot be left on a line. For example, the word frost not transferable.
2. A word consisting of one syllable is not hyphenated. For example: work .
3. One letter of a word cannot be left on the previous line. Also, one letter cannot be carried over to the next line. For example, words stork And idea are not tolerated.
4. You cannot leave one consonant without a vowel on the previous line or transfer it to the next one. For example, the word round can be transferred like this round. It is incorrect to transfer it like this: round or round .
5. The letters й, ы, ъ, ь cannot be separated from the previous letter: war, entrance, district.

There are a few more transfer rules, but we will study them as we learn further material.

Agreement, rings, masterfully, bartender, cottage cheese - how to put the emphasis correctly? Errors in this part of linguistic science are especially common. This is not surprising - there are no uniform rules for placing stress in the Russian language, so it is necessary to learn and remember.

Correct stress in the word "cottage cheese"

Linguists call the sound emphasis on the last syllable correct: tvorOg. This norm is enshrined in dictionaries. But almost every second Russian-speaking person makes a mistake in the pronunciation of this word, so linguists do not exclude the possibility that the situation will change: tvOrog - the emphasis in the word on the first syllable, may definitely become normal.

What will the speech say about us?

Why do we care about speaking correctly? Of course, because competent speech is the calling card of a cultured and educated person. Our language is so expressive that our status, other people’s opinion of us and the general flavor of our life depend on whether we place emphasis on words correctly or incorrectly. Imagine that you heard the following monologue: “Last quarter I was awarded a bonus, and we got funds. We put on scarves, went, bought cakes, and put them on the kitchen table. I took pieces and put them in my mouth. I ate too much.” Even without seeing the person who is saying this, you can easily make up his social portrait, right?

Dictionary to help

Since there are no uniform rules for placing stress in Russian speech, an orthoepic dictionary becomes our assistant. Orthoepy is the science of pronunciation norms; the word came to us from the Greek language and is literally translated as “correct speech.” The “Spelling Dictionary” contains the literary norm for the pronunciation of words, and therefore the stress in it.

How many dictionaries, so many opinions?

The acoustic component of this lexeme is interpreted in their own way by different dictionaries. In the word “cottage cheese”, the stress on the last syllable is declared the norm, but an additional one is also recorded - on the first syllable - in the “Orthoepic Dictionary” edited by R. I. Avanesov, republished for the last time in 1972. In the dictionary “Russian verbal stress”, edited by M. V. Zarva, published in 2001, only one literary norm is fixed - TvorOg: stress on the last syllable. In the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language,” edited by I. L. Reznichenko, released in 2003, both methods of pronunciation are recorded - with emphasis on the first and second syllable. In the “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language” by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova, only one way of pronouncing the word is mentioned as the norm - with stress on the last syllable: tvorOg.

The stress in this word, fixed in spelling and explanatory dictionaries, which also always contain information about the placement of stress, also differs among different authors. All this just means that language is constantly developing and changing. There is an interesting study on this topic, for example, in the “Dictionary of Pushkin’s Language,” published in 2000. There you can get acquainted with outdated and outdated words, lost accents and meanings of modern words. For example, this is how in the old days the emphasis was placed in the words “citizens, laid down, by fate.” Or this is how some prepositions were associated with words: “between what” instead of the modern “between what”, or “towards whom”, instead of the “towards whom” used today.

Features of Russian accent

Stress is the phonetic emphasis of a certain syllable in a word. We do this by amplifying the sound signal in any part of the word. In Russian, stress is always placed on vowel phonemes in a word. The syllable on which it falls is called stressed. The stressed sound is always longer than the unstressed sound, and the voice on the stressed sound rises. The stress can fall in any part of the word; moreover, in different grammatical forms (when conjugating and declension of words) it can move from one syllable to another. Let’s take, for example, the word “cottage cheese” that interests us. The stress, as we found out, should be placed on the syllable -рОг. But this is in the nominative and accusative cases. In the genitive, the stress will already be on the syllable -гУ, etc.

Some difficult cases

Now let's look at a few more words in which people very often make phonetic errors. The leaders of incorrect pronunciation are the words carpenter (correctly - stolYar), wholesale (pr. - wholesale), calls (pr. - zvonit), scarves (pr. - scarves), bows (pr. bAnty), agreement (norm - agreement), facilitate (norm - Ease), beets (norm - beets), accepted (norm - accepted), shoe (norm - shoe). Here we will also include the correct emphasis in Anglicism: bArmen.

So, we are convinced that it is necessary to speak correctly, and for this we must not be lazy to look in dictionaries, and also that the mobile word “cottage cheese” does not get along with the stress fixed on the last syllable and seeks to legitimize another norm - stress on the first syllable. However, this process has not yet been completed, and therefore this word should be pronounced as most dictionaries require - with the last stressed syllable.