The Italian writer and philosopher Machiavelli Niccolo was an important statesman in Florence, serving as secretary in charge of foreign policy. But the books he wrote brought him much greater fame, among which the political treatise “The Sovereign” stands out.

Biography of the writer

The future writer and thinker Machiavelli Niccolo was born in the suburbs of Florence in 1469. His father was a lawyer. He did everything to ensure that his son received the best education for those times. There was no better place for this purpose than Italy. The main source of knowledge for Machiavelli was the Latin language, in which he read a huge amount of literature. The works of ancient authors became reference books for him: Macrobius, Cicero, and Titus Livy. The young man was interested in history. Later, these tastes were reflected in his own work. The key works for the writer were the works of the ancient Greeks Plutarch, Polybius and Thucydides.

Machiavelli Niccolo began his public service at a time when Italy was suffering from wars between numerous cities, principalities and republics. A special place was occupied by the Pope, who at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. was not just a religious pontiff, but also a significant political figure. The fragmentation of Italy and the absence of a single national state made rich cities a tasty morsel for other major powers - France, the Holy Roman Empire and the growing power of colonial Spain. The tangle of interests was very complex, which led to the formation and dissolution of political alliances. The fateful and striking events that Machiavelli Niccolo witnessed greatly influenced not only his professionalism, but also his worldview.

Philosophical views

The ideas expressed by Machiavelli in his books significantly influenced society's perception of politics. The author was the first to examine and describe in detail all models of behavior of rulers. In the book “The Sovereign,” he directly stated that the political interests of the state should prevail over agreements and other conventions. Because of this point of view, the thinker is considered an exemplary cynic who will stop at nothing to achieve his goal. He explained state unscrupulousness by serving a higher good purpose.

Niccolo Machiavelli, whose philosophy was born as a result of personal impressions of the state of Italian society at the beginning of the 16th century, not only discussed the benefits of this or that strategy. On the pages of his books, he described in detail the structure of the state, the principles of its work and the relationships within this system. The thinker proposed the thesis that politics is a science that has its own laws and rules. Niccolo Machiavelli believed that a person who has mastered this subject perfectly can predict the future or determine the outcome of a particular process (war, reforms, etc.).

The importance of Machiavelli's ideas

The Florentine writer of the Renaissance introduced many new topics of discussion into the humanities. His debate about expediency and compliance with moral standards raised a thorny question, which many philosophical schools and teachings are still arguing about.

Discussions about the role of the personality of the ruler in history also first appeared from the pen of Niccolo Machiavelli. The thinker's ideas led him to the conclusion that with feudal fragmentation (in which, for example, Italy was), the character of the sovereign replaces all power institutions, which harms the inhabitants of his country. In other words, in a fragmented state, paranoia or weakness of the ruler leads to ten times worse consequences. During his life, Machiavelli saw enough of such picturesque examples thanks to the Italian principalities and republics, where power swung from side to side like a pendulum. Often such fluctuations led to wars and other disasters that hit the common population the hardest.

History of the "Sovereign"

It should be noted that the treatise “The Prince” was written as a classic manual of application intended for Italian politicians. This style of presentation made the book unique for its time. It was a carefully systematized work in which all thoughts were presented in the form of theses, supported by real examples and logical reasoning. The Prince was published in 1532, five years after the death of Niccolò Machiavelli. The views of the former Florentine official immediately found a response among the widest public.

The book became a reference book for many politicians and statesmen of subsequent centuries. It is still actively republished and is one of the pillars of the humanities dedicated to society and institutions of power. The main material for writing the book was the experience of the fall of the Florentine Republic, which Niccolò Machiavelli experienced. Quotes from the treatise were included in various textbooks used to teach civil servants of various Italian principalities.

Heredity of power

The author divided his work into 26 chapters, in each of which he addressed a particular political issue. Niccolo's deep knowledge of the history of ancient authors often appears on the pages) allowed him to prove his guesses using the experience of the ancient era. For example, he devoted an entire chapter to the fate of the Persian king Darius, who was captured. In his essay, the writer assessed the fall of the state that had occurred and gave several arguments about why the country did not rebel after the death of the young commander.

The question of the types of heredity of power was of great interest to Niccolo Machiavelli. Politics, in his opinion, directly depended on how the throne passed from predecessor to successor. If the throne is transferred in a reliable way, the state will not be threatened by unrest and crises. At the same time, the book provides several ways to maintain tyrannical power, the author of which was Niccolò Machiavelli. In short, the sovereign can move to a newly captured territory in order to directly monitor local sentiments. A striking example of such a strategy was the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the Turkish Sultan moved his capital to this city and renamed it Istanbul.

Preservation of the state

The author tried to explain in detail to the reader how a captured foreign country can be held. For this, according to the writer’s theses, there are two ways - military and peaceful. At the same time, both methods are acceptable, and they must be skillfully combined in order to simultaneously appease and frighten the population. Machiavelli was a proponent of creating colonies on acquired lands (approximately in the same way as the ancient Greeks or the Italian maritime republics did). In the same chapter, the author derived the golden rule: the sovereign must support the weak and weaken the strong in order to maintain balance within the country. The absence of powerful opposing movements helps the authorities maintain a monopoly on violence in the state, which is one of the main signs of reliable and stable government.

This is how Niccolo Machiavelli described ways to solve this problem. The writer's philosophy was formed as a combination of his own managerial experience in Florence and historical knowledge.

The role of personality in history

Since Machiavelli paid great attention to the importance of the individual in history, he also wrote a short outline of the qualities that an effective prince should possess. The Italian writer emphasized stinginess, criticizing generous rulers who wasted their treasury. As a rule, such autocrats are forced to resort to raising taxes in the event of a war or other critical situation, which extremely irritates the population.

Machiavelli justified the harshness of rulers within the state. He believed that it was precisely this policy that helped society avoid unnecessary unrest and unrest. If, for example, a sovereign prematurely executes people prone to rebellion, he will kill a few people while saving the rest of the population from unnecessary bloodshed. This thesis again repeats the example of the author’s philosophy that the suffering of individual people is nothing compared to the interests of the entire country.

The need for rulers to be tough

The Florentine writer often repeated the idea that human nature is fickle, and most of the people around are a bunch of weak and greedy creatures. Therefore, Machiavelli continued, it is necessary for a prince to instill awe among his subjects. This will help maintain discipline within the country.

As an example, he cited the experience of the legendary ancient commander Hannibal. With the help of cruelty, he maintained order in his multinational army, which fought for several years in a Roman foreign land. Moreover, it was not tyranny, because even executions and reprisals against those guilty of breaking the laws were fair, and no one, regardless of their position, could receive immunity. Machiavelli believed that the cruelty of a ruler is justified only if it is not outright robbery of the population and violence against women.

Death of a Thinker

After writing “The Prince,” the famous thinker devoted the last years of his life to creating “The History of Florence,” in which he returned to his favorite genre. He died in 1527. Despite the author's posthumous fame, the location of his grave is still unknown.

Writer, diplomat. Born on May 3, 1469 in Florence, the second son in the family of a notary. Machiavelli's parents, although they belonged to an ancient Tuscan family, were people of very modest means. The boy grew up in the atmosphere of the "golden age" of Florence under the regime of Lorenzo de' Medici. Little is known about Machiavelli's childhood. It appears from his writings that he was a keen observer of the political events of his time; The most significant of these was the invasion of Italy in 1494 by King Charles VIII of France, the expulsion of the Medici family from Florence and the establishment of a republic, initially under the rule of Girolamo Savonarola.

In 1498, Machiavelli was hired as a secretary in the second chancellery, the College of Ten and the magistracy of the Signoria - posts to which he was elected with constant success until 1512. Machiavelli devoted himself entirely to a thankless and poorly paid service. In 1506, he added to his many responsibilities the work of organizing the Florentine militia (Ordinanza) and the Council of Nine, which controlled its activities, established to a large extent at his insistence. Machiavelli believed that a civilian army should be created that could replace mercenaries, which was one of the reasons for the military weakness of the Italian states. Throughout his service, Machiavelli was used for diplomatic and military assignments in Florentine lands and for collecting information during trips abroad. For Florence, which continued Savonarola's pro-French policy, it was a time of constant crises: Italy was torn apart by internal strife and suffered from foreign invasions.

Machiavelli was close to the head of the republic, the great Gonfaloniere of Florence, Piero Soderini, and although he did not have the power to negotiate or make decisions, the missions he was entrusted with were often delicate and very important. Among them, embassies to several royal courts should be noted. In 1500, Machiavelli arrived at the court of King Louis XII of France to discuss the terms of assistance in continuing the war with the rebellious Pisa, which had fallen away from Florence. Twice he was at the court of Cesare Borgia, in Urbino and Imola (1502), to stay informed about the actions of the Duke of Romagna, whose increased power worried the Florentines. In Rome in 1503 he observed the election of a new pope (Julius II), and while at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1507, he discussed the size of the Florentine tribute. He actively participated in many other events of that time.

During this "diplomatic" period of his life, Machiavelli acquired experience and knowledge of political institutions and human psychology, on which - as well as the study of the history of Florence and Ancient Rome - his writings are based. In his reports and letters of that time one can find most of the ideas that he subsequently developed and to which he gave a more refined form. Machiavelli often felt bitter, not so much because of his knowledge of the downside of foreign policy as because of the divisions within Florence itself and its indecisive policies towards the powerful powers.

His own career faltered in 1512 when Florence was defeated by the Holy League formed by Julius II against the French in alliance with Spain. The Medici returned to power and Machiavelli was forced to leave government service. He was followed, imprisoned on charges of plotting against the Medici in 1513, and tortured. In the end, Machiavelli retired to the modest estate of Albergaccio, inherited from his father, in Percussina near San Casciano on the way to Rome. Some time later, when Julius II died and Leo X took his place, the Medici's anger softened. Machiavelli began to visit friends in the city; he took an active part in literary meetings and even cherished the hope of returning to service (in 1520 he received the post of state historiographer, to which he was appointed by the University of Florence).

The shock experienced by Machiavelli after his dismissal and the collapse of the republic, which he served so faithfully and zealously, prompted him to take up his pen. His character did not allow him to remain inactive for long; deprived of the opportunity to engage in his favorite activity - politics, Machiavelli wrote works of significant literary and historical value during this period. The main masterpiece is “The Prince” (Il Principe), a brilliant and widely known treatise, written mainly in 1513 (published posthumously in 1532). Initially, the author entitled the book On the Principalities (De Principatibus) and dedicated it to Giuliano de' Medici, brother of Leo X, but in 1516 he died, and the dedication was addressed to Lorenzo de' Medici (1492–1519). Machiavelli's historical work Discourses on the First Decade of Tito Livio (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio) was written in the period 1513–1517. Other works include “The Art of War” (Dell’arte della guerra, 1521, written in 1519–1520), “History of Florence” (Istorie fiorentine, 1520–1525), two theatrical plays - “Mandragola” (Mandragola, 1518) and "Clicia" (in 1524-1525), as well as the short story "Belphagor" (in the manuscript - a Tale, written before 1520). Although disputes about the personality of Machiavelli and his motives continue to this day, he is certainly the author. one of the greatest Italian writers.

It is difficult to evaluate the works of Machiavelli, primarily because of the complexity of his personality and the ambiguity of his ideas, which still give rise to the most contradictory interpretations. Before us is an intellectually gifted person, an unusually insightful observer, possessed of rare intuition. He was capable of deep feeling and devotion, exceptionally honest and hardworking, and his writings reveal a love for the joys of life and a lively sense of humor, although usually bitter. And yet the name Machiavelli is often used as a synonym for betrayal, deceit and political immorality.

In part, such assessments are caused by religious reasons, the condemnation of his works by both Protestants and Catholics. The reason was criticism of Christianity in general and the papacy in particular; According to Machiavelli, the papacy undermined military valor and played a negative role, causing the fragmentation and humiliation of Italy. On top of this, his views were often distorted by commentators, and his phrases about the establishment and defense of statehood were taken out of context and quoted in order to reinforce the popular image of Machiavelli as a malicious adviser to princes.

Moreover, The Prince was considered his most characteristic, if not his only, work; from this book it is very easy to select passages that clearly prove the author’s approving attitude towards despotism and are in striking contradiction with traditional moral norms. To some extent this can be explained by the fact that The Prince proposes extraordinary measures in an emergency; however, Machiavelli’s aversion to half-measures, as well as his desire for effective presentation of ideas, also played a role; his contrasts lead to bold and unexpected generalizations. At the same time, he did consider politics to be an art that is independent of morality and religion, at least when it comes to means rather than ends, and he made himself vulnerable to charges of cynicism by trying to find universal rules of political action that were would be based on observation of actual human behavior, rather than speculation about what it should be.

Machiavelli argued that such rules are found in history and confirmed by modern political events. In his dedication to Lorenzo de' Medici at the beginning of The Prince, Machiavelli writes that the most valuable gift he could bestow is an understanding of the deeds of great men, acquired by "many years of experience in present affairs and an incessant study of past affairs." Machiavelli uses history to support, with carefully selected examples, the maxims of political action that he formulated from his own experience rather than from historical studies.

“The Prince” is the work of a dogmatist, not an empiricist; still less is it the work of a man applying for office (as was often believed). This is not a cold appeal to despotism, but a book imbued with high feeling (despite the rationality of the presentation), indignation and passion. Machiavelli seeks to show the difference between authoritarian and despotic modes of government. Emotions reach their climax at the end of the treatise; the author appeals to a strong hand, the savior of Italy, a new sovereign capable of creating a powerful state and freeing Italy from the foreign domination of the “barbarians.”

Machiavelli's remarks about the need for ruthless decisions, even if they seem dictated by the political situation of that era, remain relevant and widely debated in our time. Otherwise, his direct contribution to political theory is insignificant, although many of the thinker’s ideas stimulated the development of later theories. The practical influence of his writings on statesmen is also questionable, despite the fact that the latter often relied on Machiavelli’s ideas (often distorting them) about the priority of the interests of the state and the methods that a ruler should use in gaining (acquista) and maintaining (mantiene) power. In fact, Machiavelli was read and quoted by adherents of autocracy; However, in practice, autocrats managed without the ideas of the Italian thinker.

These ideas were of greater importance for Italian nationalists during the era of the Risorgimento (political revival - from the first outbreaks of Carbonarism in the 20s of the 19th century until the unification in 1870) and during the period of fascist rule. Machiavelli was mistakenly seen as the forerunner of the centralized Italian state. However, like most Italians of that time, he was a patriot not of the nation, but of his city-state.

In any case, it is dangerous to attribute to Machiavelli the ideas of other eras and thinkers. The study of his works should begin with the understanding that they arose in the context of the history of Italy, more specifically, the history of Florence during the era of wars of conquest. "The Sovereign" was conceived as a textbook for autocrats, significant for any time. However, when critically examining it, one should not forget about the specific time of writing and the personality of the author. Reading the treatise in this light will help to understand some unclear passages. The fact remains, however, that Machiavelli's reasoning is not always consistent, and many of his apparent contradictions must be recognized as valid. Machiavelli recognizes both human freedom and his “fortune,” a fate with which an energetic and strong person can still somehow fight. On the one hand, the thinker sees in man a hopelessly corrupt creature, and on the other hand, he passionately believes in the ability of a ruler endowed with virtu (perfect personality, valor, fullness of strength, intelligence and will), to free Italy from foreign domination; While defending human dignity, he at the same time provides evidence of the deepest depravity of man.

Brief mention should also be made of the Discourses, in which Machiavelli focuses on republican forms of government. The work purports to formulate the eternal laws of political science derived from the study of history, but it cannot be understood without taking into account the indignation that Machiavelli aroused at the political corruption in Florence and the inability to rule of the Italian despots, who presented themselves as the best alternative to chaos, created by their predecessors in power. At the heart of all Machiavelli's works is the dream of a strong state, not necessarily republican, but based on the support of the people and capable of resisting foreign invasion.

The main themes of the "History of Florence" (eight books of which were presented to Pope Clement VII de' Medici in 1525): the need for general consent to strengthen the state and its inevitable decay with increasing political strife. Machiavelli cites facts described in historical chronicles, but seeks to identify the true causes of historical events, rooted in the psychology of specific people and the conflict of class interests; he needed history in order to learn lessons that he believed would be useful for all times. Machiavelli was apparently the first to propose the concept of historical cycles.

With a dramatic narrative, The History of Florence tells the story of the city-state from the birth of Italian medieval civilization to the French invasions in the late 15th century. This work is imbued with a spirit of patriotism and a determination to find rational rather than supernatural causes of historical events. However, the author belongs to his time, and references to signs and wonders can be found in this work.

Machiavelli's correspondence is extremely valuable; Particularly interesting are the letters he wrote to his friend Francesco Vettori, mainly in 1513–1514, when he was in Rome. These letters contain everything from descriptions of the minutiae of domestic life to bawdy anecdotes and political analysis. The most famous letter is dated December 10, 1513, which depicts an ordinary day in the life of Machiavelli and gives an invaluable explanation of how the idea of ​​​​"The Prince" came about. The letters reflect not only the author's ambitions and anxieties, but also the liveliness, humor and sharpness of his thinking.

These qualities are present in all his works, serious and comedic (for example, in "Mandrake"). Opinions differ in assessing the stage merits of this play (it is still sometimes performed, and not without success) and the evil satire it contains. However, Machiavelli also conveys some of his ideas here - about the success that accompanies determination, and the inevitable collapse that awaits those who hesitate and those who take wishful thinking. Her characters - including one of the most famous simpletons in literature, the deceived Messer Nitsch - are recognizable as typical characters, although they give the impression of the results of original creativity. The comedy is based on living Florentine life, its morals and customs.

The genius of Machiavelli also created the fictional “Biography of Castruccio Castracani from Lucca,” compiled in 1520 and depicting the rise to power of the famous condottiere at the beginning of the 14th century. In 1520, Machiavelli visited Lucca as a trade representative on behalf of Cardinal Lorenzo Strozzi (to whom he dedicated the dialogue “On the Art of War”) and, as was his custom, studied the political institutions and history of the city. One of the fruits of his stay in Lucca was the "Biography", depicting a merciless ruler and known for its romantic presentation of ideas about the art of war. In this small work, the author's style is as sharp and bright as in other works of the writer.

By the time Machiavelli created his major works, humanism in Italy had already passed its peak. The influence of humanists is noticeable in the style of “The Prince”; in this political work we can see the interest, characteristic of the entire Renaissance, not in God, but in man, the individual. However, intellectually and emotionally, Machiavelli was far from the philosophical and religious interests of the humanists, their abstract, essentially medieval approach to politics. Machiavelli's language is different from that of the humanists; the problems he discusses have scarcely occupied humanist thought.

Machiavelli is often compared to his contemporary Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), also a diplomat and historian immersed in questions of political theory and practice. Far from aristocratic by birth and temperament, Machiavelli shared many of the basic ideas and emotions of the humanist philosopher. They were both characterized by a sense of catastrophe in Italian history due to the French invasion and indignation at the state of fragmentation that did not allow Italy to resist enslavement. However, the differences and discrepancies between them are also significant. Guicciardini criticized Machiavelli for his persistent calls for modern rulers to follow ancient models; he believed in the role of compromise in politics. Essentially, his views are more realistic and cynical than Machiavelli's.

Machiavelli's hopes for the flourishing of Florence and his own career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was given over to the Spaniards for plunder, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, which lasted three years. The dream of Machiavelli, who returned from the front, to receive the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government no longer noticed him. Machiavelli's spirit was broken, his health was undermined, and the thinker's life ended in Florence on June 22, 1527.



Bibliographic description:

Nesterova I.A. Niccolo Machiavelli // Encyclopedia website

The study of Machiavelli's works is very important at the present stage of development of history and political science. It will allow a deeper understanding of modern historical processes.

Machiavelli and the Renaissance

Niccolò Machiavelli was one of the most famous thinkers of the Renaissance. At that time, man had not yet become a slave to consumption. During the Renaissance, people were weighed down by the imperatives of profit and ruthless competition.

Niccolò Machiavelli lived in an extraordinary age, an age of change and complex conflicts. It is not for nothing that the turn of the 15th – 16th centuries is considered one of the first European times of crisis. It was then that Italy, losing four hundred years of dominance, froze in its development, absorbed by the public and social crisis.

The Renaissance is characterized by the emergence of a new branch of culture, namely science, ambivalent in relation to morality. It should be noted that it was Nicolo Machiavelli who was the first to separate politics from morality. By politics he understood the technology of power. Machiavelli replaced ethics with a value-neutral knowledge of the structure of power. “Thus, he laid the foundation of political science as instrumental knowledge, built on the model of the exact sciences... Machiavelli’s bold precedent continues to captivate those who develop political theory in its instrumental-applied dimension.” Machiavelli made the retention of power the main theme of his studies.

Features of Machiavelli's view of history

Machiavelli's views on the historical process were characterized by the idea of ​​cyclicality, a natural change of state forms. In his opinion, it is not abstract theoretical calculations, but the real experience of history itself that reveals certain rules, principles for the alternation of these forms. Monarchy, as he shows in many examples, is replaced by an oligarchy, which is replaced by a republic, which in turn gives way to individual rule - this is the cycle of state evolution among most peoples. The basis of this cyclical nature is the constant struggle of contradictions and interests inherent in the life of society, conflicts between small and large groups, and the “immutable course of events.” Machiavelli first drew attention to the importance of understanding the dialectics of the historical process.

Of particular interest is the work of Nicolo Machiavelli “The Prince”. It was he who dedicated it to the controversial and iconic historical figure of the Renaissance, Lorenzo de' Medici. Using the example of The Prince, one can trace the tendency to use history in order to support, with the help of examples, the maxims of political action that he formulated based on his own experience.

In his philosophy, Nicolo Machiavelli creates the following order of “historical rhythm.”

1. At the beginning of the world, when the inhabitants were few in number, they lived scatteredly, like animals; Subsequently, when their generation multiplied, they united in order to better defend themselves, chose the strongest and most courageous from among them, made him their leader and began to obey him. From here arose the knowledge of the difference between useful and kind, harmful and vile.
2. But since the leaders became hereditary and not elected, the rulers immediately began to degenerate, became hateful and cowardly, and from fear they moved to oppression, and tyranny arose.
3. From here came the fall of the sovereigns, plans and conspiracies against them.
4. The leaders lead the crowd, management proceeds in accordance with the common benefit, but when power passes to the sons, “who did not know the vicissitudes of fate, who did not experience misfortune and did not want to be content with civil equality,” then “they turned the aristocratic rule into an Oligarchy, trampling on the rights of citizens.
5. With the new leader, “People's Rule” was introduced, which brought citizens to “complete licentiousness.”

According to Niccolo Machiavelli, people who in history remain true to themselves and their ideals are comparable to “God’s Creatures” and general moral criteria do not apply to them. For such people, their individual actions are subject to evaluation. Machiavelli separates action from personality, separates politics from morality, completely freeing it. If we consider the works of Macchiavelli through the prism of history, then it is striking that circumstances can be created by a person, but an act is the topos of a prudent correlation between “behavior” and “time”: “the reason for the happiness or unhappiness of people lies in whether their behavior corresponds to the time or No".

According to Niccolo Machiavelli, a number of factors determine the historical process. They are shown in the figure below.

Factors of the historical process in the concept of Machiavelli's cyclism

According to Machiavelli, any historical event is not unique for a number of reasons. First of all, due to the fact that the movement of history is not a straight line, but a sinusoid, “all human affairs... go either up or down” (Discourses. 1. IV). The second reason the philosopher calls is the fact that human nature is an unchanging constant. “By studying the events of the present and past times,” writes Machiavelli, “we find that in all states and among all peoples the same aspirations and passions existed and exist. It is therefore not difficult to deduce from a careful study of past events a conclusion about what is to come in the future.” the future, or resort to those means that were used by the ancients. In cases where there are no examples of the necessary means in the past, new ones can be invented, guided by the similarity of circumstances. However, the same troubles are repeated in all times, because historical considerations are neglected by the readers. history, they do not know how to draw conclusions from it, or the conclusions remain unknown to the rulers" (Discourses. 1.XXIX).

As a man who valued history, Machiavelli noted that there are no boundaries between modernity and history. One smoothly flows into the other, while giving the opportunity to understand the laws of politics. However, history reflected on paper is only valuable when it is true. Not to embellish the truth, but to look for “the real, and not the imaginary truth of things” (Sovereign. XV) - this is the task that Niccolo Machiavelli set himself. Based on this, it can be argued that for Machiavelli the truth is a price in itself and it is not the joy of knowledge that attracts him, but the truth.

Niccolo Machiavelli on the problem of creating a single national state

Politics and morality are extremely important for public life and are its regulator. They have a direct impact on the formation of the social environment, which in turn affects the level of moral development of a person.

Niccolo Machiavelli perceived the state as the implementer of state policy. He introduced the following thesis into political practice: “The end justifies the means.” This phrase by Niccolò Machiavelli implies that any action can be justified by a good purpose. The philosopher wrote that the actions of any ruler should be assessed not from a moral point of view, but from the point of view of results aimed at the benefit of the state. And since the latter is, according to Niccolo Machiavelli, the unification of people to achieve specific goals, it does not matter how they are achieved.

Politics and morality intersect. Morality is characterized as follows: “a set of norms and principles of human behavior in relation to society and other people...”.

Studying the past and present, Niccolo Machiavelli noted that for centuries politics and morality have been engaged in a merciless debate, which shows the place of these concepts in the evolution of society and man.

Currently, the work “The Prince” by Nicollo Machiavelli is being actively studied by modern political scientists and philosophers. Machiavelli's contemporaries did not consider the philosopher's work "The Prince" monumental, filled with theses and axioms. For them, it was rather an expression of the author’s personal opinion.

When Nicollo Machiavelli lived, he could give only a few examples from political life to confirm his thesis. Niccolò Machiavelli dreamed of seeing Italy united. In the chapter of his famous book “The Prince,” he writes: “How to avoid hatred and contempt.” Machiavelli, analyzing the behavior of the Roman emperors, comes to the conclusion that the emperors “soft and merciful” and those distinguished by “extreme cruelty” suffered the same fate. There are only two exceptions: among the merciful, Marcus Aurelius died a natural death, and among the cruel, Severus; all the rest died a violent death. This happened because the actions of Mark and Severus, being different, coincided with the demands of the time, while the actions of the others contradicted them. The ideal reforming sovereign should not imitate anyone, but should be able to act both like Mark and like Severus. This is what Machiavelli writes: “... a new sovereign in a new state should neither imitate Mark nor be like the North, but must borrow from the North that without which it is impossible to found a new state, and from Mark - the best and most worthy that is needed to preserve the state, which has already acquired both stability and strength." From this we can conclude that Machiavelli’s ideal is the North, turning into Mark simultaneously with the growth of virtue among the people.

But since new orders are yet to be created in Italy, one should rely, first of all, on force. And Machiavelli did not see anything terrible in this - all the founders of new states did this. For Italian reality, what Machiavelli said had a special meaning, because the people were corrupted to such an extent that they could no longer distinguish evil from good, and therefore the sovereign had to rely on fear and cruelty. For fear - because “they love the sovereign at their own discretion, and are afraid at the discretion of the sovereign, therefore it is better for a wise ruler to count on what depends on him, and not on someone else.”

One of the important provisions of the work “The Sovereign” is the idea that the sovereign needs the ability to be cruel, because often correctly carried out cruel measures bring more benefit to the people than seemingly merciful ones.

The only thing that a sovereign must avoid is the hatred and contempt of the people. Hatred of the sovereign is aroused by “predation and encroachment on the goods and women of his subjects,” and contempt by “inconstancy, frivolity, variability, cowardice and indecision.”

We cannot agree that Italy should be united by a cruel man. This is not entirely true. However, the circumstances are too strong. In the conditions of that time, a cruel ruler was good. After all, “the distance between how people live and how they should live is so great that the one who rejects the real for the sake of what should be acts rather to his own detriment than to his good, since, wanting to profess goodness in all cases of life, he inevitably will die when faced with many people alien to goodness." But the sovereign is obliged to survive, to survive for the sake of saving the fatherland, and for this he must be able to be both a man and a beast at the same time. As a person, he relies on laws, and as an animal, he combines the qualities of a fox and a lion: cunning and strength.

Combining the above, it is important to note that according to Machiavelli’s work “The Prince,” the ideal reformer ruler is a performer. He plays the role that is determined by circumstances, but he never deviates from the main goal - the creation of a unified state.

Describing the actions of the Duke of Borgia, Machiavelli did not find anything with which he could be reproached. The fact is that Borja was a brilliant tactician of political struggle. He knew how to protect himself from enemies, make friends, use strength and cunning, instill fear and love in the people, show both severity and mercy, generosity and generosity. But the most important advantage of Borgia was that his actions objectively led to the unification of the country and ultimately to the good of the people, because before his conquest, Romagna “was under the rule of insignificant rulers who did not so much care about their subjects as robbed them and directed not to harmony, but to discord, so that the entire region was exhausted from robberies, strife and lawlessness."

In conclusion, it is important to note that Niccolo Machiavelli’s theory of the state is based on the centuries-old experience of the existence of the institution of the state and on the analysis of historical facts, the historical destinies of ancient states.

As a result, his works determined the leading role of Machiavelli in the Renaissance science of the state. As a political thinker, he revolutionized the established tradition, making the doctrine of the state consistently secular, freeing it from official church morality. He brought politics closer to science and art on the basis of studying reality itself and refusing to idealize it. Machiavelli built a theory that generalized not imaginary, but real, concrete state experience.

An assessment of historical events in Italy by Niccolo Machiavelli

Machiavelli's works are reflections of the era in which the philosopher lived. Niccolò Machiavelli lived during a time of serious conflict based on the following contradictions:

1. the need for the development of the city-state of Florence,
2. within the internecine struggle of the Italian states and the papacy
3. Within Europe, trade competition flourished; in addition, the fragmented participation of the Italian republics in big European politics was hampered.

It is important to note that Machiavelli wrote his work during a difficult time for Italy, when it ceased to be a state. There was an irreconcilable struggle within the country between all sovereign parts. Italy ceased to be united, but became a weak unity of mini-states squabbling among themselves, in which monarchies were established.

Nicolo Machiavelli was very worried about the fate of Italy. All his experiences were reflected in his literary works. Thus, the main themes of the “History of Florence”:

1. the need for general consent to strengthen the state
2. inevitable decomposition of the state with increasing political strife.

Machiavelli cites facts described in historical chronicles, but seeks to identify the true causes of historical events, rooted in the psychology of specific people and the conflict of class interests; he needed history in order to learn lessons that he believed would be useful for all times. Machiavelli was apparently the first to propose the concept of historical cycles.

With a dramatic narrative, The History of Florence tells the story of the city-state from the birth of Italian medieval civilization to the French invasions in the late 15th century. This work is imbued with a spirit of patriotism and a determination to find rational rather than supernatural causes of historical events. However, the author belongs to his time, and references to signs and wonders can be found in this work.

Machiavelli's correspondence is extremely valuable; Particularly interesting are the letters he wrote to his friend Francesco Vettori, mainly in 1513–1514, when he was in Rome. These letters contain everything from descriptions of the minutiae of domestic life to bawdy anecdotes and political analysis. The most famous letter is dated December 10, 1513, which depicts an ordinary day in the life of Machiavelli and gives an invaluable explanation of how the idea of ​​​​the Prince came about. The letters reflect the author's concerns about the fate of Italy. Machiavelli often felt bitter, not so much because of his knowledge of the downside of foreign policy as because of the divisions within Florence itself and its indecisive policies towards the powerful powers.

In conclusion, it must be emphasized that the Italian Niccolo Machiavelli was a talented and, without a doubt, a great theorist and scientist who took a significant step towards the creation of the ideology and science of the New Age, which had a profound influence on the development of political and legal thought and modern political science.

Machiavelli entered the culture of the High Renaissance not only as a brilliant historian and political thinker, but also with another facet of his talent - as a talented writer. He was a playwright, the author of the bright comedies "Mandrake" and "Clizia", ​​wrote poetry and prose, and was a master of the epistolary genre. Machiavelli wrote all his works in Italian, the virtues of which he highly valued and praised in his polemical “Dialogue on Our Language.” One of the largest figures in the culture of the Renaissance, Machiavelli sought to bring its different spheres closer to each other and with all his creativity showed the fruitfulness of their unity.

Literature

1. Gorelov A. A.. Political science in questions and answers: textbook. – M.: Eksmo. 2012.
2. Kozlikhin I.Yu. History of political and legal doctrines - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House, 2009
3. Machiavelli N. Sovereign. - M.: Planet, 1990
4. Politics: Explanatory Dictionary: Russian-English. – M.: INFRA-M, 2009
5. Chicolini L. S. Ideas of “mixed government” in Italian journalism of the 16th century // Renaissance Culture and Society. M.: Nauka, 1986

Niccolo Machiavelli's brief biography and interesting facts from the life of the Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, and politician are presented in this article.

Niccolo Machiavelli biography briefly

Niccolo Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano, near Florence, on May 3, 1469 into an impoverished noble family. The young man received an excellent education. He had a good command of Latin, so he read ancient authors in the original and understood the Italian classics.

In 1498, he received the post of secretary of the Second Chancery, and later, but in the same year, the job of secretary of the Council of Ten. Machiavelli was responsible for diplomacy and the military sphere. For a long time, for 14 years, the thinker carried out various orders from the government: together with members of the embassy, ​​he traveled to the Italian states, France and Germany, compiled reports and certificates on current political issues, and was responsible for correspondence. But such work, experience in diplomatic and public service became the basis for the subsequent creation of political and social concepts.

When the Medici came to power in 1512, Machiavelli resigned due to divergent views and disputes. He, an ardent Republican, is expelled from the city for a year. A year later, the thinker is arrested as a possible participant in the conspiracy and tortured. Niccolo is finally pardoned and sent to the Sant'Andrea estate.

He had the most fruitful period of creativity on the estate. He wrote many works on political history, philosophy and military theory. In 1513, a work was written that immortalized his name in world history - “The Sovereign”. The slogan of this treatise is that the end justifies the means. In it, the author touched upon the issues of uniting politically fragmented Italy into one strong state.

In 1520, Pope Clement VII summons Niccolò Machiavelli and appoints him historiographer. The Pope ordered him to write a history of Florence. He also writes songs, short stories, poems and sonnets.

In the last years of his life he tried to return to politics, but was inconsolable. In the spring of 1527, his candidacy as chancellor of the Florentine Republic was rejected. And on June 21, 1527, while staying in his native village, the thinker and philosopher lost consciousness.

Famous works of Machiavelli- “The Prince”, “Treatise on the Art of War”, “Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livy”, comedy “Mandrake”, “History of Florence”.

Introduction……………………………………………………3

Niccolo Machiavelli. Biography…………………………...4

About the works of Niccolo Machiavelli…………………….6

Crowd control in the works of Niccolo Machiavelli………8

Conclusion………………………………………………………10

Literature……………………………………………………………......11

Introduction

Every public relations specialist should know and be able to use various manipulation techniques. This is an integral part of professional activity. Therefore, the author of this work, as a future specialist in this field, considered the most important topic “Studying the crowd and manipulating its opinion.” This topic will be examined and analyzed on the basis of the works of Niccolo Machiavelli “The Prince” and “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius”.

Niccolo Machiavelli. Biography.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) belonged to an impoverished family that came from the middle of the city nobility and at one time played a certain role in the political life of the Florentine Republic. His father was a lawyer, the family's income was very modest and did not allow young Niccolo to receive a university education. But having grown up among the Florentine humanist intelligentsia, he studied Latin well enough to read ancient authors fluently. From a young age, his predominant interest in politics, in modern political life, determined his reading range - these are, first of all, the works of historians of classical antiquity, perceived not from the position of an erudite scientist, but as material for political analysis, a textbook on politics. It is characteristic of the formation of Machiavelli’s worldview that the abstract thoughts of the Florentine Platonists, as well as the scholastic science of universities, remained alien to him. But it is very significant that in his youth he not only carefully read, but also carefully rewrote for himself with his own hand an outstanding monument of ancient philosophical materialism - Lucretius’ poem “On the Nature of Things.”

Niccolo Machiavelli appeared on the political arena of Florence at the age of about 30, when in the spring of 1498 he was elected to the post of secretary of the Second Chancellery, and then secretary of the Council of Ten, the government of the republic. For 14 years, he carries out many important political and diplomatic assignments for the Florentine Signoria, takes part in embassies to Rome, France, Germany, writes reports, memos, “Discussions”, in which he touches on important issues of the foreign and domestic policy of the republic. His “business” writings of this time testify to a deep understanding of the political situation in Italy and Europe, extraordinary observation, and a witty analytical approach to contemporary events. This rich political experience, along with the study of ancient authors, will serve as the basis for his later works in the field of political theory.

After the fall of the Republic in 1512 and the restoration of Medici power, Machiavelli found himself removed from business. Suspected of participating in an anti-medical conspiracy, he was imprisoned and tortured, and then exiled to his country estate. Attempts to return to active political activity lead nowhere, and the man who has plans to save Italy from foreign rule is forced to remain a powerless observer of the tragedy of his homeland. Only in 1526 he was called upon to organize the defense of Florence, he tried to unite the efforts of the Italian states and experienced the complete collapse of his last hopes. The republic, restored after the new expulsion of the Medici, refuses the services of the former secretary, and 10 days after the fatal decision of the Great Council, Niccolo Machiavelli dies (June 21, 1527).

During the years of forced withdrawal from political activity, he created the main literary works.