BIBLE BOOKS OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURE OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT CANONICAL PENTATEUCH OF MOSES MODERN RUSSIAN TRANSLATION MOSCOW RUSSIAN BIBLE

Pentateuch

The Pentateuch of Moses Review of the first five books of the Bible The first five books of the Bible were written down by the prophet Moses during the forty-year wandering of the Jews in the Sinai desert. Initially, all the writings of Moses constituted one collection of God's revelations, one book known

Pentateuch (general information). Book of Genesis (general information)

Pentateuch

The first five books of the Old Testament in the Jewish tradition are called Thor A, which means Law. In the Greek tradition - πεντάτευχος, which is translated into Russian as the Pentateuch.

The Pentateuch includes the following books:

The narrative of the Pentateuch covers the period of sacred history from the creation of the world to the return of the Jews from Egyptian captivity to Canaan (Palestine).

The book of Genesis contains a narrative about the earliest stages of human history: from the creation of the world to the migration of the Jews to Egypt under the patriarch Jacob. The narrative of the book of Genesis is something of a prehistory to the other four books, which cover the period of time from the birth to the death of Moses. Nevertheless, Genesis is a complete literary work with its own value. It is from here that we know how the world was created, how humanity found itself in such a deplorable situation, and how the Lord creates the Jewish people, in whose bosom the Savior of the world is to be born.

The Book of Exodus tells us about the exodus of the Jews from Egypt until they stopped at Mount Sinai, where the Lord made a Covenant with them.

The book of Leviticus contains virtually no narrative sections. Its entire content is a collection of ritual laws that God gave to Israel on Mount Sinai.

In turn, the book of Numbers is devoted to a description of the path of the Jews from Sinai to the borders of Canaan and also contains laws that regulate various aspects of Jewish life.

The last book, Deuteronomy, is a kind of summary of what was said in the previous three books. It briefly recounts the history of Israel's journey from Egypt to Canaan, and contains important legislative decisions, as well as the final instructions Moses gave to his people.

Structure of the Pentateuch

The structure of the Pentateuch can be viewed at different levels. First of all, we can talk about five different books, each of which is a complete literary work that has its characteristic literary features.

We can also say that the Pentateuch consists of two parts: 1) the passage of Gen. 1 – Ref. 19 – this is mainly a historical narrative; 2) Ref. 20 – Deut. 34 – the content of this block is mainly laws.

There is another way to look at the structure of the Pentateuch. It can be divided into three large blocks, each of which ends with blessings and curses for descendants, as well as a subsequent short epilogue. So, the first block is Gen. 9:25-27, in which Noah blesses Shem and Japheth, and also curses Canaan (epilogue to Gen. 9:28); Life 49 contains Jacob's predictions to his sons (epilogue to Gen. 50); Deut. 33 – prophecy of Moses to the tribes of Israel (epilogue Deut. 34).

As a result, we have before us the boundaries of three eras:

1. era of the primitive world (Genesis 1 – 9);

2. the era of the patriarchs (Gen. 10 – 50);

3. era of Moses (Ex. 1 – Deut. 34).

In turn, within each of the three eras there are its own subsections. The transition from one section to another is carried out using poetic inserts.

Thus, the period of the primitive world is divided into Edenic (Gen. 1 - 3) and post-Edenic (Gen. 4 - 9). The story about the stay of the first people in paradise ends with a poetic speech of God (Genesis 3:14-19) and an epilogue (Genesis 3:20-24). The era of the patriarchs is divided into the pre-Canaanite period (Gen. 10:1 - 12:5) and post-Canaanite period (Gen. 12:6 - 50:26). They are separated from each other by God's poetic speech to Abraham (Gen. 12:2, 3) and the epilogue (Gen. 12:4, 5). The era of Moses is divided into three periods using poetic insertions. The Egyptian period ends with the crossing of the Red Sea and the song of Moses (Exodus 15:1-18) followed by an epilogue (Exodus 15:19-21). The narrative of the Jew's journey in the desert ends with a poetic insertion (Num. 21:27-30) and an epilogue (Num. 21:31-35). Finally, the last section ends with the song of Moses (Deut. 32:1-43) and the epilogue (Deut. 32:44-52).

The first five books of the Old Testament, having the same author - Moses, apparently at first represented one book... from the testimony of Prince. Deuteronomy, which says: " take this book of the law and lay it at the right hand of the ark of the covenant " (31:26)...

A. P. Lopukhin. Explanatory Bible or commentary on all books of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments:

«... Our modern word " Pentateuch"represents a literal translation of the Greek - πεντάτευχος from πέντε - “five” and τεύχος - “volume of the book”... Each of the five volumes of the Pentateuch has its own differences and corresponds to different periods of theocratic legislation. Thus, first volume represents a kind of historical introduction to it, and last serves as an obvious repetition of the law; three intermediate volumes contain the gradual development of theocracy, timed to certain historical facts, and the middle of these three books (Leviticus), sharply different from the previous and subsequent ones (almost complete absence of the historical part), is an excellent line dividing them.

All five parts of the Pentateuch have now acquired the meaning of special books and have their own names, which in the Hebrew Bible depend on their initial words, and in Greek, Latin and Slavic-Russian - on the main subject of their content.”

"Composition of the Pentateuch - Commandments, Laws, Charters, Historical sections. Initially, the books of the Torah were named after their first words.

Genesis (Heb. Beresh'it - In the beginning; Greek. G'enesis - Origin).

Exodus (Heb. Ve ele shem`ot - And these names; Greek: Ex`odos).

Levite (Hebrew: Vayikra - And called; Greek: Levitik`on).

Numbers (Heb. Vaidav`ar - And said; Greek: Arhythm`oi).

Deuteronomy (Heb. El'e hadvar'im - These words; Greek. Deutoron'omion) " (A. Men).

A. Lopukhin: “The Book of Genesis contains a narrative about the origin of the world and man, a universal introduction to the history of mankind, the election and education of the Jewish people in the person of its patriarchs - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Book Exodus tells at length about the exit of the Jews from Egypt and the granting of the Sinai legislation. Book Leviticus is specially devoted to the exposition of this law in all its particulars that are closely related to worship and the Levites. Book Number gives the history of wanderings in the desert and the number of Jews who were counted at that time. Finally, book Deuteronomy contains a repetition of the Law of Moses.

According to the fundamental importance of the Pentateuch, Saint Gregory of Nazianzen called it the true "ocean of theology""And indeed, it represents the main foundation of the entire Old Testament, on which all its other books rest. Serving as the basis of Old Testament history, the Pentateuch is the basis of New Testament history. , since it reveals to us the plan of the divine economy of our salvation. That is why Christ himself said that He came to fulfill, and not to destroy, the law and the prophets (Matthew 5:17). In the Old Testament, the Pentateuch occupies exactly the same position as the Gospel in the New.”

A. Men. : Selected quotes from the book:

"Five Scrolls" ... first found in (c. 200 BC) ... In Heb. traditions of P. is called the Torah, which in European languages ​​is usually rendered with the word “law”.... “instruction”, “command”, “teaching”... Not later than the period of the Second Temple, the Torah began to be called “Mosaic” (2 Chron. 30: 16; Nehemiah 8:1), although in the titles of her books (and the collection as a whole) there is no name of Moses and it does not follow from the text itself that Moses was the author of all P. On the contrary, the description of the death of the prophet and a number of features of the Torah indicate that divinely inspired writers participated in its composition. In a number of places the P., however, it is said that Moses was the author of a certain part of its narrative and legislative sections (for example, Exodus 17:14; 24: 3-4; Num 33:2; Deut 27: 1-3; 31: 9 Etc.)...
From the Bible itself one can trace how P.'s authority gradually increased over the centuries. It is estimated that it is mentioned 5 times in the prophets, 8 times in the Psalms, 12 times in the Book of Kings, and 31 times in the Chronicler’s writings. NZ contains approx. 80 direct links to P.; Moreover, the word “law” itself is often used there as a synonym for all the books of the OT (for example, Rom 10:4). The significance of the law is determined by the fact that it contains the earliest statement fundamental principles of biblical revelation, faith and theology. The books of Moses: 1) proclaim faith in the one true God, Creator and Provider; 2) they talk about the covenant between God and man and the violation of this covenant by people; 3) talk about the beginning of the Church, the people of God; 4) contain the religious and moral principles of life of the community of the faithful; 5) profess faith in the manifestation of the will of the Lord through the events of history; 6) teach about the divine-human character of history itself; 7) proclaim the soteriological acts of the Lord (promise, messianism). All the main traditions of the Old Testament schools and movements (prophets, priests, sages, psalmists) genetically derive from P. The symbolism of P. permeates the NT...

1. Why the Covenant was given within one nation . Books of Holy Scripture were not created one of the famous and powerful civilizations, but they were a revelation, given to the people living in a small and poor country, whose history is a chain of severe trials, crises and adversities. But it was there that the spiritual threshold and prototype of the Church of Christ was located. In the Old Testament, the Church, or the People of God, was limited to national boundaries. This is due to the fact that in ancient times the transmission of any spiritual tradition was carried out from parents to children, within the bosom of a certain culture and national tradition. This stage began to be overcome in the Hellenistic era (III-I centuries BC), when the first proselytes began to enter the Old Testament Church. The New Testament Church already embraces Jews and Greeks, barbarians and Scythians (Col. 3:11), becoming the new universal people of God.

2. Patriarchs and oral legends. The ancestors of the Israelites, called patriarchs, came to Palestine from the East, from Mesopotamia and Syria. Their migration was associated with a calling from above, which prompted Abraham to leave his “father’s house.” At this time (c. 1900-1700 BC) the first legends about the beginning of the world and man, as well as legends about the patriarchs themselves (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, etc.) were apparently composed. ). This tradition was consolidated in oral form.

Chronological milestones in the history of the Old Testament Church
(Period described in the Pentateuch)

3. From Moses to Joshua. At the beginning of XVII century BC the Israelites (Children of Israel) migrated during a famine in the border region of the Nile Delta. This happened under the Asian Hyksos pharaohs, who patronized immigrants from Palestine. But under the pharaohs of the New Kingdom their situation worsened. Some Sons of Israel groups left Egypt(there are hints of this in Joshua 8:33; 1 Chron 7:21,24). Life has become especially difficult for Israelis under Ramses II, who, having moved his residence to the Delta, attracted foreigners to construction work.

In the 13th century, Israel left Egypt under the leadership of the Levite Moses, who became its leader, prophet and lawgiver. At first, the people wandered through the desert in the vicinity of Mount Sinai and the oasis of Kadesh. There God The first Law was given through Moses, from which the Holy Tradition of the Torah (Pentateuch) originates. Part of it was written down by Moses himself (for example, Exodus 20), part of it was kept orally among the Levites. Nevertheless in spirit the Torah remains Mosaic. In the same era, hymns were composed (Exodus 15; 16:17; Numbers 10:35), which were included in collections that have not reached our time...”

Author of Genesis - A. Lopukhin:“... a strong argument for the authenticity of the Pentateuch is the universal tradition, which continuously, over a number of centuries, starting with the book of Joshua (1:7-8; 8:31; 23:6, etc.), passing through all other books and ending with the testimony of the Lord Jesus Christ himself (Mark 10:5; Matt. 19:7; Luke 24:27; John 5:45-46), unanimously affirms that The writer of the Pentateuch was the prophet Moses. The testimony of the Samaritan Pentateuch and ancient Egyptian monuments should also be added here.”

A. Men:“The Pentateuch nowhere contains direct indications that it belongs entirely to Moses. It only mentions the “book” where he recorded memorable events (Exodus 17:14; Numbers 33:2), and also wrote down laws and commandments (Exodus 24:4; 34:27). However there are passages in the Pentateuch that clearly date back to the time after Moses. Thus, speaking about the arrival of Abraham in the vicinity of Shechem, the writer of everyday life notes: “The Canaanites lived in this land at that time” (Gen. 12:6). Consequently, Israelites were already living there in his time. Genesis 14:14 mentions the city (or area) of Dan, which received its name after the tribe of Dan moved to Canaan under Joshua. In Genesis 36:31 it is said about the kings of Edom that they reigned “before the reign of kings among the children of Israel” - thus, St. the writer already knows about these kings (and they appeared 200 years after Moses). Further, the prophet himself is spoken of in such a reverent tone that these words can hardly be attributed to him (Numbers 12:3; Deut 33:1; 34:10-11). And, finally, it is impossible to assume that Moses spoke about his own death (Deut. 34)... Echoes of later times also lie in such places in Exodus as the description of the tabernacle (25.31 - 27.8). It hardly corresponds to the poor nomadic life of the Israelis... All this led biblical theologians to the conclusion that Only part of the text of the Pentateuch belongs directly to the prophet, the rest is the Mosaic Tradition, set out in writing by other divinely inspired sages ...

Variations in biblical stories - “variations can be traced in the ways of revealing a particular topic within the Pentateuch. For example:

a) the creation stories in Gen. 1-2, while united in spirit, are clearly different in character (in Gen. 1, plants and animals were created first, and then man; according to Gen. 2, when man appeared, there were no plants yet, and animals were created after person);

b) in Gen. 4:25-26 the birth of Seth is narrated, and in Gen. 5:3 this is spoken of as if for the first time;

c) in Gen. 4.17 Enoch is the son of Cain, and in Gen. 5.18 - the son of Jared, i.e. tenth after Adam;

d) in Gen. 7.17 the flood (flood) lasted 40 days, and in Gen. 7.24 - 150 days.

These discrepancies (the number of which is very large) make it possible to isolate there are four lines in the sacred narrative, which are woven into one whole. Many biblical scholars believe that originally there were four coherent texts that arose at different times and in different circles »...

Each story corresponds to one of the legislative texts of the Torah.

Historical environment of pre-Mosaic and Mosaic times described with such reliability that it excludes the idea that the legends of the Pentateuch were invented by authors of the 10th or 8th centuries. In other words, The books of Moses are a record of a very ancient, authentic Tradition.

...four sources of P. were not “composed”, but were a “crystallization” of the Mosaic Tradition. It was consolidated and written down in stages: at Sinai, in Kadesh, in Transjordan, and under Joshua - in Shechem (cf. the ritual described in Deut. 27-28)... As for the liturgical regulations of Leo, they go back to ancient times to the times before Moses. They were passed down by the clergy over the centuries in oral and written tradition and took their completed form during the period of captivity. At the end of this period, unknown priest the writer (perhaps, Ezra?) gathered the entire P. corps together... Thus, in the history of the formation of P., a living, continuous continuity of the Mosaic Tradition can be traced. His most important theological concepts, such as monotheism, revelation, covenant, promise, etc., determine the spiritual unity of P., and therefore it is rightfully associated by church tradition with the name of this great leader and prophet.

Question about the time of Moses' life. In P. there are no direct dates or indications of historical figures contemporary with Moses (the Egyptian kings are simply called “pharaohs”). The chronology that can be deduced from the text of the Bible itself is based on the date in 1 Kings 6:1, which states that The construction of the temple began 480 years after the exodus. And since Solomon began to build the Temple OK. 968 g., then the time of Moses’ life should be attributed to the middle of the 15th century. BC But there is a serious chronological objection here. Exodus 1:11 says that oppressed Israelites built the city of Ramses for Pharaoh; Meanwhile, in the 15th century. this city was still in ruins and did not bear the name Ramses (its former name was Hetvart, Greek Avaris). It was revived by Pharaoh Ramesses II (c. 1290-1224), who moved his residence there. Therefore, biblical scholars view the number 480 as a symbolic number (40x12). Found Petrie Stele of Pharaoh Merneptah raised new questions. She dates OK. 1220 and mentions Israel as a tribe already living in Canaan (or on its border). Currently, there are three options for solving the problem: 1) Merneptah meant the Israelites who left Egypt before Moses (we find a hint of this in 1 Chron 7: 21-24, which talks about the invasion of Canaan by the sons of Ephraim); 2) the stele displays events related to the exodus (Ramesses is the oppressor pharaoh, and his son Merneptah is the pharaoh of the exodus); 3) the exodus occurred under Ramesses II, and the stele indicates the arrival of the Israelites in Palestine. The latter point of view was substantiated in detail by Albright (1938)...

The Old Testament Church did not know the division into God and worldliness . Human life in all its manifestations had to pass before the face of the Lord. That's why The Pentateuch, along with religious and moral commandments, includes civil and criminal law. The entire body of legislation came from God and was traditionally sanctified by the authority of Moses. It was Moses, as the creator of the Old Testament Church, who set before it the task of serving God and belonging only to Him. It was through him that God revealed to people that observance of moral principles is the most important duty of a believer. The gradual enrichment and expansion of the Mosaic Law captured more and more new areas of human life, work, marriage and social relations. "Life according to the Law" did not simply mean the mechanical fulfillment of a certain amount of instructions, but brought every step of man into conformity with the will of God. This spiritual depth of the “religion of the Torah” is reflected in the Psalter, especially Ps 118, read by the Church at funeral services.

But the desire of believers to subordinate every detail of life to the rules of the law was also fraught with dangers. Gradually it began to turn into a deadening statutory piety, a complex casuistic morality, religious formalism and ritual belief. In that - origin of legalism , which later turned out to be an obstacle to the gospel of Christ's freedom. The conviction that man can achieve righteousness through his own efforts created that type of “hypocrite” who was severely condemned by Christ the Savior...

Prophecies about Christ in P. The books of Moses are characterized by a certain incompleteness, for they are imbued with the expectation of a great and mysterious future, the meaning of which is not fully revealed. Already in Genesis 3:15 the Church Fathers saw prophecy of the final victory over the Serpent. In the appearance of the God-man, the secret of the prophecy given to Abraham is revealed, that in him (i.e. in his descendants) all the families of the earth will be blessed (Gen. 12:3; cf. 18:18; 22:18; 26:4). This same prophecy is confirmed in the revelation to Jacob (Gen. 28:14). Messianic meaning Balaam also has a prophecy about the star of Jacob (Numbers 24:17). Moses predicts the appearance of the eschatological Prophet, through whom God will speak to people.“And the Lord said to me:... I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers, and I will put My words in His mouth, and He will speak to them whatever I command Him” (Deut. 18:18; cf. 18:15)... In a later era He will be expected not only as a Prophet, but also as a King and as a High Priest.”

Pentateuch, Pentateuch of Moses, books of the Pentateuch, Pentateuch of Moses, first book of the Pentateuch, second book of the Pentateuch, third book of the Pentateuch, fourth book of the Pentateuch, fifth book of the Pentateuch, documentary hypothesis

The Pentateuch of Moses is the first five books of the Hebrew and Christian Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy). According to Jewish tradition, these five books are called Torah (teaching, law).

The story told in the Pentateuch.

The unity of the Pentateuch comes from the unity of the story told in five books. God creates the world and paradise for man, man eats fruit from the tree of knowledge, for which God expels him from paradise, but blesses his offspring. The human race grows, man's possessions expand, but his bad behavior provokes God to send the Great Flood to wipe out all sinners from the face of the earth, except the righteous Noah and his family. After the flood, the world is again populated by the descendants of the three sons of Noah - Ham, Shem and Japheth. From them descended all the peoples of the civilized world. Noah's descendant Abraham receives a promise from the Lord - the land of Canaan. Despite all the trials, Abraham's son Isaac receives ownership of the Canaanite lands. His descendant Jacob becomes the father of twelve sons (which is why he is later called “Israel”).

This is the story as a whole, let's look at its development through the books.

The first book of the Pentateuch.

The first book of the Pentateuch of Moses is . Described here:

Second Book of the Pentateuch

The second book of the Pentateuch is the Book. Described here:

Fourth Book of the Pentateuch

The fourth book of the Pentateuch is the Book.

Fifth book of the Pentateuch

Fifth Book of the Pentateuch – Book

Who wrote the Pentateuch and when?

Until the seventeenth century, the almost unanimous answer of Jews and Christians to this question was “Moses.” Moses wrote the Pentateuch, so says David in Psalms, and no one dared to doubt it, although even then many noticed inconsistencies and duplicates in the narrative. For a long time, everything was explained by the theory of divine inspiration: God inspired Moses, and he wrote with the words of God. However, if we look at the end of the Pentateuch, we see that the Book of Deuteronomy ends with a description of the death of Moses. How would Moses describe his own death? This discrepancy was usually explained by one of the following options:

• Moses described his own death as dictated by God,
• The last lines of the Pentateuch were written by Joshua.

With the rise of historical criticism, scholars have begun to use duplicates and inconsistencies in the text to argue that the Pentateuch has multiple authors.

By the end of the nineteenth century, the leading theory of the authorship of the Pentateuch was that the Pentateuch was written down during the Age of the Judges (c. 1220-1020 BC) according to oral tradition.

Today, the main version of the origin is the version of 4 sources (DOCUMENTARY VERSION), which were combined into one and underwent several (at least three) editions. The following arguments support this point of view:

• Availability of repetitions– there are more than 25 of them in the Pentateuch. Repetitions are sometimes contradictory in details, sometimes the versions complement each other.
• Various terminology in different books and parts of books.
• Difference in theological concept seen throughout all 5 books.

Documentary hypothesis of the origin of the Pentateuch.

According to this hypothesis, the Pentateuch of Moses was written based on 4 sources:

• Yahwist
• Elohist / Elohist
• Deuteronomy
• Priestly Code

Let's look at the sources of the Pentateuch and their features.

YAHWIST or source J - the oldest part of the Pentateuch. The Yahwist dates back to the 9th-10th centuries BC. e. The source received its name from the name of God Yahweh. The Yahwist is characterized by:

• God is anthropomorphic physically and spiritually,
• Positive attitude towards the Kingdom of Judah and criticism of the other tribes of Israel,
• Many borrowings from the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh

It is the Yahwist who gives us stories about the Creation of the World and Man, about the Fall, about Cain and Abel, and also about the Tower of Babel. The Yahwist also contains details of the Great Flood and the Exodus from Egypt.

ELOHIST or source E - its name comes from the word Elohim, a term used in Hebrew and Canaanite languages ​​to name God. The source is usually dated to the end of IX BC. The story of the Elohist spring apparently begins with the story of Abraham. Moreover, according to this source, it is believed that Abraham sacrificed Isaac, and the intervention of the angel was the result of a later edition after human sacrifice had ceased to be practiced.

The Elohist is characterized by:

• Abstract idea of ​​God
• Positive attitude towards the Northern Kingdom,
• Great role of angels

The Elohist gives a more detailed and detailed account of the exodus from Egypt than the Yahwist.

DEUTERONOMY. The authorship of the book is attributed to the Jerusalem clergy. This book is considered as whole and indivisible, unlike the four other books of the Pentateuch of Moses. It is very likely that Deuteronomy dates from the 14th to 13th centuries. BC e. Deuteronomy stands out from the entire Pentateuch in style, content, and genre, representing more of a sermon than a story.

PRIESTIC CODE. The Priestly Code includes genealogical lists, a description of the conclusion of the Covenants of God with Noah and Abraham. It also became the basis of the book of Leviticus.

Features of the Priestly Code:

• God is anthropomorphic.
• The main focus here is on cult.

It is believed that the sources were combined together after the fall of the Northern Kingdom. Deuteronomy was added a little later.

However, it should be said that the documentary hypothesis is also subject to criticism today. Scientists say that this approach greatly simplifies the situation, that there were many more sources and editions of the Pentateuch of Moses.

Traditional Judaism today denies the presence of several sources for the Pentateuch of Moses. Jews perceive the text of the Pentateuch as one and indivisible.

The Personality of Moses in the Pentateuch.

From the Jewish point of view, the dominant figure of the Pentateuch is Moses. Abraham also plays an important role, but even his personality cannot compete with Moses. Although Moses was born into an ordinary Jewish family, he was raised by the daughter of Pharaoh and received an education worthy of the house of Pharaoh. Moses' concern for his people later in his life led to his exile from Egypt. After 40 years of wandering in the Midian desert, he spoke with God and appeared as a prophet. Moreover, he was a prophet of a special kind. God spoke not through him, but to him, face to face.

Important in the prophetic role of Moses were "signs and wonders" which the Lord accomplished through him, first in Egypt and then in the wilderness. The Prophet was also a man of prayer, interceding on behalf of others. Moses' intercession on behalf of Israel clearly demonstrates his role as a mediator between God and Israel. At Mount Sinai, Moses also played an important role in the creation of a national cult under the leadership of priests and Levites. Moses ordained the priests, who performed the prescribed sacrifices required by Levitical law. Thus, before Aaron was established as high priest, Moses was the first priest of Israel.

CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE PENTATEUCH - FROM GENESIS TO DEuteronomy

Chronology is the basis of history. Without an understanding of chronology there can be no historicity. Establishing the chronological framework of the events described in the Pentateuch is important for understanding the History of the Old Testament.

Establishing the chronological framework of the Pentateuch is problematic in the absolute sense, that is, in correlating a specific event with an exact year, but there is enough biblical data to correlate the time frame of one event with the time frame of another - so-called relative chronology. Typically, the absolute reference point for the New Testament is the birth of Christ.

There are many problems in establishing an absolute reference point for the Old Testament, including the Pentateuch.

The following dating sources are considered:

• Bible stories,
• Archaeological finds,
• Astronomical observations

If we compare modern chronology with the events described in the Pentateuch, we can obtain the following chronology of the main events:

• Creation of the first people - about 4000 BC,
• Great Flood - 2300 BC uh,
• Birth of Abraham - around 2000 BC,
• Life of Moses - XVI-XII centuries. BC e.

Types of Christ in the Pentateuch

Identifying major theological themes and emphases is an important aspect of properly understanding the books of the Bible. These themes are derived from each book of the Pentateuch and are presented in the analysis and synthesis of that book. There is, however, one aspect of the theme that we can trace throughout the Pentateuch. This is the theme of spiritual types of Christ.

Bible type may be defined as a historical person, object, activity, or event that has, in addition to its historical significance, a divinely intended significance.

Below is a brief description types of Christ or types of Christ in the Pentateuch.

ADAM

Adam recognized as a prototype of Christ. Adam is the head of the old creation, Christ is the head of the new creation. Through Adam's sin, the resulting condemnation was brought upon all men; through one act of Christ's righteousness all believers were justified.

MELCHIZEDEC

(the righteous king of Salem) is declared to be a type of Christ in Hebrews. Melchizedek is seen as a type of Christ as high priest.

ISAAC

God commanded Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering. If we add to this fact that Isaac was born through miraculous circumstances and was the heir of all the promises of God, then his similarity to Jesus will become undeniable.

JOSEPH

Joseph symbolizes in a sense the coming of Christ. Joseph, like Christ, was rejected by his brothers. Like Christ, Joseph suffered persecution and hardship before he was exalted. Like Christ, Joseph experienced several levels of humiliation as he went from beloved son to slave.

MOSES

Moses is a prototype of Christ, if only because he was the only one, besides Christ, who performed the functions of prophet, priest and king.

In contact with

The Pentateuch, the so-called Mosaic Law, is the first five books of the canonical Jewish and Christian Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Pentateuch forms the first part of the Jewish Tanakh - the Torah. The word “Pentateuch” is a literal translation from Greek - πεντάτευχος from πεντε - “five” and τευχος - “volume of the book”.

Structure of the Pentateuch

It is impossible to determine when the Torah was divided into five books. There is reason to believe that this division existed long before the destruction of the Second Temple (that is, before the beginning of the new era), but the first official mention of the division of the Torah into five books dates back to the Jerusalem Talmud (around the 3rd century AD). In any case, in addition to purely technical considerations (for example, reducing the size of the scrolls for more convenient reading), such a division is due to the structure of the text itself.

1. The book of Genesis tells the story of the Creation and the formation of the Jews as a family;
2. The book of Exodus has a prologue and an epilogue that separate it from other books and tells about the Exodus from Egypt, the Giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai and the construction of the Tabernacle - that is, the registration of the sons of Israel as the Jewish people;
3. The book of Leviticus is devoted mainly to priestly legislation and temple service;
4. the Book of Numbers is based on the wanderings of the Jews in the desert after the Exodus from Egypt;
5. Deuteronomy is Moses' dying speech, in which he repeats the contents of other books.

Books of the Pentateuch

Book titles of the Pentateuch

Russian names of the books of the Pentateuch come from Greek names, while in the original the books are named after the first significant words, respectively: Be-reshit (“In the beginning”), Shemot (“Names”), Va-ikra (“And called”) , Bemidbar (“In the Desert”), Dvarim (“Words”). This method of naming has been practiced since ancient times and therefore it can be assumed that these are the original names of the books of the Pentateuch. However, there were other names.

• The book of Genesis is also called " Ha-Sefer Ha-Yashar” (lit. “Straight Book”), in honor of the forefathers who were “straight” (that is, honest with people and devoted to God).
• The book of Exodus is sometimes called " ha-Sefer ha-sheni” (“Second Book”), since it follows the book of Genesis.
• The book of Leviticus is also called " Torat hakohanim” (“Priestly Charter”), since the laws of clergy and temple service occupy a central place in it.
• The Book of Numbers is called " Humash a-pkudim"(lit. "Five of those numbered"), due to the calculations of the number of Jews that were carried out in the desert.
• Finally, Deuteronomy is also called " Mishneh Torah"(lit. "Repetitive Law"), since it represents a repetition of all previous books.

• Be-decide (Book of Genesis) - the first book of the Torah, the Old Testament and the entire Bible. The book of Genesis describes the Creation of the world and all living things, as well as the creation of the first people - Adam and Eve (Chava), the first sin (the Fall), and the expulsion from the Garden of Eden. The story of Cain and Abel (hevel). What follows in chronological order is a description of the generations before Noah (Noach). Description of the Flood. The life of the partarchs (the forefathers and foremothers of the future Jewish people) - Abraham, his son Isaac (Yitzhak) and Jacob (Yaakov). The Creator gives them a promise to bless their offspring for eternity, and also to give them the land of Canaan (Canaan) “... as long as the heavens exist above the earth" The end of the book describes all of the Twelve Tribes of Israel, Joseph's life in Egypt, and ends with Jacob's family moving to Egypt and Jacob's death.

• Shemot (Book of Exodus) - the story of the Exodus of the people of Israel from Egypt under the leadership of Moses (Moshe). The book describes the spiritual path of Moses, the Ten Plagues of Egypt and the Exodus itself. What follows is a description of the Giving of the Torah to the Jewish people on Mount Sinai. Moses receives from the Creator the Tablet of the Covenant with the Ten Sayings (Commandments). During Moses' stay on Mount Sinai, the children of Israel created the Golden Calf, as a result of which the first tablets were broken. After all the people repented of what they had done, the Almighty granted forgiveness to the people, and Moses again climbed Mount Sinai to receive new tablets. The Second Tablets of the Covenant were received on the 10th day of Tishrei, which was called Yom Kippur (that is, “Day of Atonement”). The book also describes in detail the structure of the Tabernacle of the Covenant.

• Va-yikra (Book of Leviticus) - devoted mainly to priestly legislation and temple service. This is followed by the laws of spiritual purity and impurity, including the laws of Kashrut, Yom Kippur (Judgment Day), etc.

• Be-midbar (Numbers) - is dedicated to the forty-year wandering of the Jews in the desert before entering the Land of Israel: from the beginning of the second month of the second year to the eleventh month of the fortieth year. Next, the sons of Israel emerge from the desert and head around the kingdoms of Moab and Edom to the Promised Land. Then the confrontation between Israel and Balak, the ruler of Moab, and the prophet Balaam (Bil'am), and the fall of the tribe of Shimon are described. Having won the victory, the Jews head to the kingdoms of Og and Sihon (Transjordanian kingdoms). After defeating them, the Israelites finally approach the borders of Canaan (Cnaan).

• Dvarim (Deuteronomy) - the final book of the Pentateuch. Its main part is instructions and prophecies to the children of Israel for all subsequent generations. Moses approached the Jordan itself and could see the entire Land of Israel, however, as the Lord predicted, Moses was not destined to enter it. The book and the entire Pentateuch ends with the death of Moses.

Division of the books of the Pentateuch

• The numbering of verses and the division of books into chapters is of non-Jewish origin. Their source is the medieval manuscript tradition of the Vulgate. The division of the books of the Pentateuch into chapters was introduced in the 13th century. Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton. The oldest manuscript containing Langton's division is the Paris Vulgate manuscript of the 13th century. From the Vulgate, this division passed into the manuscripts and editions of the Tanakh. The division of the Septuagint, which the Russian Synodal translation follows, has a number of differences from the Vulgate in the division of the text into chapters and the numbering of verses.

• According to Jewish tradition, the Pentateuch (like the rest of the books of the Bible) is divided into “paragraphs” - “ it's lousy"(Hebrew: פרשיות‎). Scab may be open ( bird) or closed ( stuma), depending on the start of the next scab: If scab(in a Torah scroll) begins on the same line where the previous one ended scab- it is called " scab stuma", if on the next line - " bird" It is customary to consider open scab as the primary division of the text, while closed ones mark a secondary division. The Dead Sea Scrolls also use a method of dividing the text into open and closed scab(although they differ from the Masorah divisions). In order to reduce all the Torah scrolls to one sample, Maimonides (13th century) in his work Mishneh Torah, gives a complete list of all it's lousy The Pentateuch, taking as a basis the famous Tanakh code “Keter Aram Tzova” (known as the “Aleppo Code”). According to this version, the Pentateuch contains 669 it's lousy: 290 open and 379 closed. In modern editions, the division of sections in the Torah is usually done in accordance with the system outlined by Maimonides. The division of the text into verses is indicated by the Masoretic subscript Silluk. The concept of verse ( pasuk) as divisions within a section is known from the Talmud.

• Another Jewish division of the text of the Pentateuch is the division into parashot(Hebrew: פרשות‎). The Pentateuch is divided into 54 (53) sections - parashot, which are read in synagogues as part of the annual cycle. A similar system was used mainly in Babylon, from where it spread to all Jewish communities. In the Land of Israel, a different division was adopted - into 154 or 167 sections, called sedarim, in accordance with the three-year cycle of synagogue reading.

Origin of the Pentateuch

According to the traditional view, the Pentateuch, that is, the Torah itself in the narrow sense, is a single document of Divine revelation, written from beginning to end by Moses himself. The exception is the last eight verses of Deuteronomy (which tells about the death of Moses), regarding which there are two opinions: first, these verses were also dictated by God and written down by Moses; secondly, they were added by Joshua (Yehoshua bin Nun).

In Numbers 12:6-8 indicates that the way in which God communicated with Moses was different from the way in which all other prophets received His revelation: the other prophets at these moments were abandoned by real human feelings, and only Moses was given the revelation when he was in complete consciousness, “mouth to mouth... and clearly, and not in fortune-telling...”; Moreover, “and the Lord spoke to Moses face to face, as one speaks to his friend.”

According to researchers, the other four books of the Pentateuch were canonized during the times of Ezra (Ezra) and Nehemiah (Nehemiah). The “Book of the Torah (Moses),” introduced by Ezra in addition to Deuteronomy, apparently also included texts known to us from the book of Leviticus and the book of Numbers.

Traditional Judaism rejects the historical-critical approach to the Pentateuch and the scientific and philological analysis of the text. The Masoretic Text is accepted as the only authoritative and authorized version of the Pentateuch (although it is accepted that minor errors may have crept into this text). The midrash tells about the establishment of the dominant reading by the teachers of the law: “three scrolls were found in the Temple; in one of them it was written like this: […], and in the other two it was written like this: […]; The teachers of the law rejected the reading of the first scroll and accepted the reading of the other two, and, in the end, a single consonantal text was transferred to the temple archives." A special board, supported by the temple, periodically checked the text. With great diligence and love for their work, subsequent generations of copyists took care of the accurate reproduction of the original. To avoid possible errors when copying text, detailed rules were developed for the scribe (Sofrim). A study of biblical texts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are a thousand years older than the standard Masoretic text established in the 10th century. Aharon Ben-Asher, confirmed his accuracy and showed the illegality of the numerous “corrections” proposed over the past two centuries.

Biblical scholars view the Pentateuch as the result of a series of editions using various literary sources. The use of literary sources in the process of creating the modern text of the Pentateuch is most evident in Num. 21:14-15, which quotes from the “scroll of Yahweh’s wars”, as well as in Gen. 5 which gives the “scroll of the genealogy of Adam.”

Other features of the composite structure of the Pentateuch include the following.

• Repetitions. In the stories of the Pentateuch there are about 25 cases where a story is told in two or more versions, for example, Gen. 12:10-20, 20:1-18, also 26:6-11. Often different versions of a story contradict each other in detail. In approx. In 50 cases, the law is given in two or more versions, with one version expanding or revising the other, for example, Lev. 11:1-47 and Numbers 14:3-20.
• Terminology. Different parts of the Pentateuch consistently use different terms for certain names, names and general concepts, and if history is repeated twice, then the first version uses one set of terms, and the second version uses a different set.
• Narrative coherence. Portions of text highlighted by repetition and terminology often present a more coherent narrative than in the original text of the Pentateuch.
• Theological concept. The portions of the Pentateuch, distinguished by repetition and different terminology, also have different theological concepts. These differences concern the concept of god, the relationship between god and humans, and free will and ethical ideals.

The most popular theory of the origin of the Pentateuch is the Documentary Hypothesis, put forward by German scientists in the 19th century. The documentary hypothesis assumes 4 document sources, combined as a result of three editions. The ancient epic sources Yahwist and Elohist, recorded during the period of the Kings, were combined after the fall of the Northern Kingdom. Subsequently, a third document was added to the resulting document - the book of Deuteronomy. The last to be added was the Priestly Code, and as a result of this addition the text of the Pentateuch acquired its modern form. The latest edition dates back to the period after the Babylonian captivity.

Samaritan Pentateuch

The Samaritans use their own version of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch, which is written in Paleo-Hebrew script. Most researchers agree that the Samaritan Pentateuch existed already in the 3rd century. BC e. The first acquaintance of European researchers with this Pentateuch dates back to 1616.

A debate has begun among Bible scholars about the relative merits of the Samaritan and Masoretic texts of the Pentateuch. The most complete comparative analysis was carried out by G. F. W. Gesenius in his work “On the Origin of the Samaritan Pentateuch” (in Latin; 1815). Gesenius proved that the Masoretic text is closer to the original than the Samaritan text. The latter always prefers simpler words where the former gives an archaic or complex form. The traditional pronunciation preserved by the Samaritans' reading of the Pentateuch shows similarities to the language of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The most significant textual difference between the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Masoretic is the insertion after Ex. 20:14 (and Deut. 5:18) a long passage consisting mainly of Deut. 27:2-7 (27:3 incomplete, 27:4 modified) and 11:30. This is, of course, a deliberate modification of the text, which, together with a number of other, less significant changes, is intended to confirm the Samaritans’ claim that Mount Gerizim near Nablus is the “chosen place,” that is, the site of the central Temple.

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Pentateuch, Torah
Hebrew חֲמִשָּׁה חֻמְשֵׁי תּוֹרָה‎
translit. "hamisha khumshey Torah"
or Hebrew חֻמָּשׁ‎
translit. "khumash"

Pentateuch in Christianity

In Christianity, there have been discussions about the extent to which the commandments of Moses given in the Pentateuch can be applied to Christians. In English-language literature, the expression Biblical Law in Christian Context can also refer to the institutions and ethical rules contained in the Pentateuch as they apply to Christians, especially in the context of supersessionism (the theological theory according to which the relationship between God and Christians can be described as "substitution" " or "fulfillment" of covenants with the Jewish people).

Various points of view are expressed in various Christian denominations - from a complete denial of any application of the Law of Moses by Christians, to their partial acceptance and (in various Protestant denominations) to the doctrine of complete observance by Christians of the decrees of the Pentateuch.

Although the Christian tradition considers the Pentateuch to be inspired by God, the Christian tradition (as well as the Jewish) denies the need for Christians to observe the entire Law of Moses, but to prove it, various arguments and different opinions are used about which of the decrees of Moses can also apply to Christians.

Most often, an exception is made for the Ten Commandments, and ritual, ceremonial, and civil laws are considered abolished.